Hyderabad: The issue about languages has been settled already, thanks to the founding fathers of our Constitution. The Constitution had declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the Union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the Constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965.
The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, the Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.
In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Union Territory of Puducherry.
As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English won’t be discontinued until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.
The position was, thus, that the Union government continues to use English in addition to Hindi for its official purposes as a ‘subsidiary official language’ The post-independence movements saw the ascent of political movements for the creation of new states on a linguistic basis. 1 November 1956 saw Andhra Pradesh become one of the first linguistic states after a prolonged struggle.
Tamil Nadu
Anti-Hindi Agitation: 1938-1964
Hindi imposition over Tamil Nadu started even before the British rule ended. During the last decades of British rule over the Indian Subcontinent, the British rulers allowed elected local provincial government under the British Government of India. In 1937, Congress Party formed the Government of Madras Presidency (Province), consisting of most of today's Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. This Congress Government under C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the first to impose Hindi on Tamil people. This immediately started protests in Tamil Nadu.
1938: Chief Minister of Madras state C Rajagopalachari ( Congress) issues a GO that makes learning Hindi compulsory in 125 schools across the state. EV Ramaswamy (Justice Party) launches a statewide protest for three years. After on death and over 1,200 arrests, Hindi learning made optional C Rajagopalachari by then had stepped down, and the state was under Governor's rule.
1938: January 3
Anti-Hindi demonstrations before Rajaji's house as it became evident that government plans to make Hindi a compulsory subject in schools. 1271 people, including 73 women, were arrested.
1938: February 27
The first Anti-Hindi Imposition Conference was held in Kancheepuram (Kanchi, Kanchipuram). Somasundara Bharathiyar, Paventhar Bharathi Dasan and C. N. Annadurai (Arinjar Anna) were among those who addressed the conference.
1938: April 21
Government of Madras Presidency made Hindi a compulsory subject in schools.
1938: May 28
Tamil patriots from all over the Madras Presidency formed the Anti-Hindi Command. Somasundara Bharathiyar was elected President and K.A.P. Viswanatham was elected Secretary.
1938: June 3
The great Saivaite scholar Maraimalai Adikalar (Marai Malai Adigalar) chaired the Anti-Hindi Conference at Kodampakkam, Chennai (Madras).
1938: August 1
Anti-Hindi March from Thiruchirapalli (Tiruchi, Trichi) to Chennai (Madras).
1938: September 10
At the Anti-Hindi Meeting held at Thiruvallikeni Beach in Chennai (Madras), Periyar E. V. Ramaswami Naicker (EVR) declared that Tamil Nadu should be an independent country. "Tamil Nadu for Tamils", he said, amongst thunderous applause from the huge crowd.
1938 - 1939
A number of Anti-Hindi Meetings and demonstrations were held throughout Tamil Nadu. A 1939 Women's Anti-Hindi Conference was chaired by Tharumambal. Women have participated in almost all anti-Hindi protests. We make a special mention of this because it was an exclusively Women's Conference against Hindi imposition.
1939: January
Natarajan and Thalamuthu who were arrested for demonstrating against Hindi imposition died during imprisonment. Both fell ill in prison, were admitted to hospital and died there. Natarajan, arrested in December 1938, died next January. Thalamuthu, arrested in February 1939, died in March.
1940: February 21
Under so much opposition against Hindi, Government of Madras Presidency withdrew its order making Hindi a compulsory subject in schools. Anti-Hindi agitations abated.
1942: Now that anti-Hindi protests had abated for two years, the Government of Madras Presidency made Hindi compulsory in schools again. Anti-Hindi agitations resumed. Government-backed down and again withdrew its order.
1946: A new Congress Government was formed in Madras Presidency under T. Prakasam. Hindi was again made compulsory in schools. Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker appointed his top lieutenant C. N. Annadurai in charge of organizing demonstrations against it. Government-backed down again and removed Hindi as a compulsory subject.
1947: Once the British rule ended on August 15, 1947, Congress Party took full control of India both at the central government and at the state government levels. The Indian (central) government was hell-bent on imposing Hindi on the non-Hindi peoples.
1948: Hindi was again made a compulsory subject in schools. Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy Naickar convened an anti-Hindi Conference in Chennai (Madras) on July 17, 1948. Maraimalai Adigalar presided over the Conference. Thiru Vi Ka opened the conference. C. N. Annadurai and M. P. Sivaganam were among the speakers. Professor Ilakkuvanar presided over another Anti-Hindi Conference on August 1, 1948.
1948 - 1949: Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) organized many anti-Hindi demonstrations in front of schools. Several thousand demonstrators were arrested and jailed. But Hindi continued to be a compulsory subject in schools.
1950: January 26
The new Indian Constitution went into effect on January 26, 1950. In spite of intense opposition from many non-Hindi leaders, especially from many Tamil leaders, Hindi was made the official language of India, relegating the other languages to a secondary status. Several years later, in 1963 Annadurai would say, "Making a language (Hindi) that is the mother tongue of a region of India the official language for all the people of India is tyranny. We believe that it will give benefits and superiority to one region (the Hindi-speaking region)... If Hindi were to become the official language of India, Hindi-speaking people will govern us. We will be treated like third rate citizens". Hindi would become the sole official language on January 26, 1965. English would also be used as an official language during the interim 15 year period.
1950: May 2
Madras State government issued an order making Hindi a compulsory subject in both middle and high schools (grades 6 to 11). Again there were massive protests. Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) and the newly formed Dravida Munnetra Kazahagam (DMK), which split from DK in 1949, spearheaded the protests.
1950: July 18
Under intense opposition from Tamil people, the government again removed Hindi as compulsory subject.
1952: Indian Government put Hindi signs in all Indian (Central) Government offices in Madras State (Tamil Nadu). Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) under Periyar EVR and its offshoot Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) under C. N. Annadurai (Arinjar Anna) orgaized anti-Hindi demonstrations. Periyar painted tar over Hindi signs in Thiruchi. Annadurai did so in Coimbatore. Thousands of others did so around the state.
1959: President of India issued an order that all efforts to make Hindi the sole official language of India by January 26, 1965 be strengthened and hastened. (According to the Indian Constitution, English would be used as a co-official language between January 26, 1950 and January 26, 1965. Then English would be removed and Hindi would become the sole official language of India.)
Indian Government controlled All India Radio (AIR) started using the Hindi word Akashwani on the air. Tamil people demonstrated against this. Tamil writers and performers refused to participate in radio programs. Indian Government decided to use the old name "All India Radio" in Tamil Nadu (Maras State) while Akashwani was used in other states. (NOTE: Indian Government started using Akashwani in Tamil Nadu again in 1982. Tamil people demonstrated and government went back to All India Radio again.)
1960: DMK formed an Anti-Hindi Agitation Committee under E.V.K. Sampath. The Anti-Hindi Imposition Meeting held under DMK sponsorship on August 1, 1960 was a huge success; more than 1 lakh people attended (1 lakh = 100,000). Immediately Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru sent a letter to E.V.K. Sampath assuring that Hindi would not be imposed on TamilNad. But Hindi imposition continued and still continues. He also assured that English would continue as an official language of India as long as non-Hindi peoples want it.
1963: August 25
At the Thanjavoor Anti-Hindi Conference, C.N. Annadurai said, "It is the duty of the Tamil people to wage war on those who impose Hindi."
1963: October 6
Tamil Nadu Students Anti-Hindi Conference was held in Thiruchirapalli (Thiruchi or Trichi). This was the first major anti-Hindi conference by students. Students would play a major role in just less than 16 months.
1963: October 13
DMK's Anti-Hindi Protest Conference was held in Chennai (Madras). Party General-Secretary C.N. Annadurai asked volunteers to burn 17-th Part of the Indian Constitution. This is the part that makes Hindi the official language of India. In the subsequent months DMK leaders and cadres burnt the constitution all over TamilNadu. They were arrested and jailed.
1965: Black Flags over Tamil Nadu
Hindi was to become the sole official language of India on January 26, 1965. January 26 is the Republic Day of India, the day on which the Indian Constitution went into force (in 1950). DMK announced January 26 as a Day of Mourning and asked volunteers to raise black flags all over Tamil Nadu. Police took many DMK leaders into preventive custody the previous night. It would have been big news but for the Tamil Nadu Students Anti-Hindi Imposition Agitation on January 25 and January 26, 1965. We provide a brief discussion of the Students Agitation in Sections 2.3 to 2.5.
Self Immolation
Before we go into the Students' Agitation, we wish to discuss the ultimate sacrifice of some Tamil patriots who poured petrol (gasoline) over their bodies, lit their bodies with fire, and offered their lives and bodies to Tamil in protest against Hindi imposition (self-immolation).
These were the first instances of self-immolation in Tamil Nadu. In fact, these were the first instances of self-immolation anywhere in the world except for Vietnam where, a few years before, some Buddhist monks did the same to protest the dictatorial rule there. These are the names of the brave Tamil patriots who offered themselves as burnt sacrifices :
- Ayyampalayam Veerappan
- Kellapaluvur Chinnasamy
- Keranoor Muthu
- Kodambakkam Sivalingam
- Mayavaram Sarangapani
- Satyamangalam Muthu
- Veerukkambakkam Aranganathan
Student Protests: January 25
Since January 26 was a holiday, University of Madras students went on a one-day strike on January 25. (University of Madras has now been split into a number of universities to reflect the growth in colleges and student population. In 1965 there were only two universities in Tamil Nadu, namely, University of Madras and Annamalai University.)
Both university and school students mobilized in protest against Hindi imposition all over Tamil Nadu. Virtually all stores closed in support. This was the largest mass protest ever in the history of Tamil Nadu (with the possible exception of the protests held two days later on January 27).
There was nothing like that before and there has been nothing like that since then with the possible exception of January 27.
There were protest marches in most towns and cities in Tamil Nadu. Over 50,000 people marched in Madras City (Chennai); this includes students as well as some general public who joined the march. The marches were peaceful.
There were colorful placards and banners against Hindi imposition. There were slogans against Hindi imposition. In some cities students beat drums and blew bugles as they marched through the main streets. At least in one city (Coimbatore) "pall bearers" carried the "dead body" of Hindi demon, accompanied by "wailing" students, to signify the "death" of Hindi imposition in Tamil Nadu. The marches were colorful. The marches were noisy. The marches were huge. It was all peaceful. The students wanted it that way. The students did it that way.
The peaceful demonstrations turned bloody at the end in Madurai. A group of students was returning to their hostels and houses. As they passed by a ruling party-affiliated trade union office, a confrontation ensued between the students and trade union members. Some trade union members attacked the students with small swords (arival). Tamil blood was spilled. Many towns and cities in Tamil Nadu would be painted red with the blood of Tamil martyrs in the next two weeks.
Student Protests and first police shooting death
Annamalai University is located in Chidamparam (Chidhambaram or Chithamparam). Annamalai University students also demonstrated against Hindi imposition. There were banners, placards, slogan shouting, drums, and bugles. Students marched towards the center of Chidhamparam. All was peaceful. Police asked the students to stop the march. Students refused. Police opened fire on the unarmed students. All that the students wanted was to show the world their opposition to Hindi imposition. But police fired on them. One student died (Rajendran) and another was wounded seriously (Nedumaran).
There were other student processions and demonstrations all over Tamil Nadu too. These are described in Section 2.5.
Killing Fields of Tamil Nadu: January 27 to February 13
Violence against students by pro-Government trade union members in Madurai and arrests of anti-Hindi imposition demonstrators angered the students all over Tamil Nadu. Massive protest rallies were held on January 27 all over TamilNadu. These rallies rivaled those of January 25. The public was with the students. Many stores closed in sympathy. People observed in silence as students marched through the streets. Tamil Nadu Students Anti-Hindi Agitation Committee announced an indefinite strike. There was public support for the strike. A rebellion was brewing in Tamil Nadu.
The mass participation in the Anti-Hindi Imposition Protests and the extent of public support to the students sent chills through the veins of Hindi politicians who dominated the Indian Parliament and thus the Indian Government. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, Home Minister Gulzarilal Nanda and Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Bhaktavatsalam (who all belonged to the same Congress Party) decided to put down the anti-Hindi protests with brute force. Indian Army soldiers, Central Reserve Police and out-of-state police were rushed into Tamil Nadu. Soldiers and police shot into crowds of unarmed demonstrators killing "uncounted number" of protesters, maiming many and otherwise wounding many more. Many towns and cities had the blood of Tamil martyrs spilled on their streets. This went on until February 13.
Unable to stop the demonstrations, even with such brute force, Chief Minister Bhaktavatsalam and Indian Government Minister Subramaniam (from Tamilnadu) promised that they would work for the enactment of laws to prevent Hindi imposition. Students called off the strike. Student leaders announced the end of the agitation in the late hours of February 12 but there were demonstrations in a few places on February 13 because the word did not reach those students. Indian Parliament passed a lukewarm Language Act on August 1, 1968. It did not meet the expectations of the Tamil people.
Death Count
The exact number of people killed, maimed and wounded is not available. That is why we used the phrase "uncounted number" in the second paragraph of Section 2.5. Professor Alfred Stepan of Columbia University (USA) writes, "Police and army troops opened fire in twenty-one towns in the state, arrested over 10,000 people, and probably killed over 100 people". Thinathanthi (daily newspapers) added up the death counts published in that paper to 63. However, reading Thinathanthi, it is clear that these 63 were the ones who died at the shooting or in the hospital or on the way to hospital that day.
It does not seem to include anyone who died in hospital after a day or more from the shooting. Because of the fast-moving events and so many deaths occurring, newspapers did not seem to follow up the fate of the injured. Remember, over 55 of the 63 deaths were in just 5 days between February 8 and 12, 1965; thirty-one deaths were reported on February 12 alone. Ages of those killed range from 13 to 50.
Usually newspapers publish the names and brief bio-information of the dead and injured when someone is killed or injured in police shooting. For example, when Rajendran was killed and Nedumaran was injured in Annamalai University (first shooting death and injury), newspapers published their names and brief bio-information. Because so many deaths were happening, not even the names of the dead were published in many instances between February 8 and 13; they just became a number; reports were like "ten people were killed in Kumarapalayam" (no names of the people killed). So many were injured that newspapers did not publish the number of injured in many shootings but just said, "many were injured".
1967: Year of the Election
In the 1967 general election, Tamil voters expressed their opposition to Hindi imposition with their votes. The Congress Party, which people associated with Hindi imposition, was defeated thoroughly; the Chief Minister, every cabinet minister and the party president all lost the election. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), which people associated with opposition to Hindi imposition, won a landslide victory and formed the state government. But the state government could do little to stop Hindi imposition. That power rested with the Indian Government.
1967-1968 Agitation: A Call for Independence
In spite of the massive 1965 demonstrations and the telling vote against Hindi in the 1967 general election, Hindi imposition continued. So Tamil Nadu Students demonstrated against continued Hindi imposition in late 1967 and early 1968. One event during this protest is worth noting. The protest march in Coimbatore City (Kovai Nagar) culminated at the V. O. C. Park (V. O. Chidamparam Park) in the centre of the city. Addressing the students, chairman of the Coimbatore Students Anti-Hindi Agitation Committee said that the only way to get rid of Hindi is for Tamil Nadu to become an independent country. He then hoisted the "Independent Tamil Nadu National Flag" and saluted it. Students stood in attention. Then the students disbursed. The flag fluttered in the gentle breeze of Coimbatore City. Police came and took down the flag.
State Government and the 1968 Agitation
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) was in power in Tamil Nadu in 1968. Chief Minister C. N. Annadurai met with student leaders and listened to them. He removed Hindi from all schools under state government jurisdiction (that covered most of the schools in the state). State government could not do anything else. Only the Indian government can end Hindi imposition. Hindi imposition continued and continues through ever-increasing use of Hindi and employment requirements at Indian government offices, institutions and undertakings.
After 1968
There were many much smaller (compared to 1965) anti-Hindi imposition agitations after 1968, against specific cases of Hindi imposition, ranging from Hindi milestones in national highways to Hindi at Navodaya schools in Tamil Nadu. These agitations were usually localized in a few locations rather than state-wide as with the agitations discussed in previous sections.
This does NOT mean that people of Tamil Nadu no longer oppose Hindi imposition. People have realized that massive agitations of non-Hindi peoples do not mean anything to the Hindi politicians who dictate the official language policy of the Indian government. So why spend time and energy on such agitations? They are grudgingly and patiently putting up with the ever-increasing Hindi imposition. There may be a limit to their patients; there may be a breaking point to their inactivity. When or how it would erupt as it did in 1965 is unpredictable.
A brief about the Protests
Political context: It was the success of the 1965 anti-Hindi agitations that propelled the then fledging DMK to power defeating the then ruling -Congress party in 1967.
1986: Tamil Nadu response to Rajiv Gandhi's Plan to introduce Navodaya schools across India and in Tamil Nadu in 1986. It was met with statewide protests and suicides, as it was seen as an attempt to force the Tamil People to learn Hindi.
Karunanidhi who was then the opposition leader rallied over 20,000 workers in protests. Twenty on men committed suicide through self-Immolation or by consuming poison.
2014: Home Ministry orders all the government employees to give preference to Hindi in their social networking sites. J Jayalalitha (AIADMK) vehemently opposes the move, saying it is against the spirit of the official Languages Act. The order was withdrawn.
2015: In August, The CBSE directed a total of 16,000 schools to implement the three-Language formula owing to vague directives, and lack of resources, this was not properly implemented in Tamil Nadu. There were no protests around the directive, but it was actively ignored in TNB.
2017: Hindi replaced English in milestones along the National Highways in Vellore and Krishnagiri districts. This sparked a rash of tweets and Facebook posts with the # StopHindichauvinism
2018: Agitations against Draft National education Policy DMK termed the policy proposal as a direct attack on the state and its linguistic culture.
I warn BJP any such move will cause them a huge disaster," DMK leader MK Stalin said. MDMK leader Vaiko warned of a "language war".
The school education minister of Tamil Nadu took the lead in criticising the Hindi-related proposal in the new policy. "Tamil Nadu will follow only two-language policy. Only Tamil and English will bravely march in Tamil Nadu,"
2019: Reactions to Amit shah statement
DMK president M.K. Stalin said making Hindi as the national language would make non-Hindi speaking people the secondary citizen and undermine the unity.“DMK founder Anna said if a language spoken by more people should be the national language, then the ubiquitous crow, and not the peacock, should be the national bird,” Mr. Stalin quipped. Urging Mr. Shah to withdraw his comments, he warned that the DMK would launch a war to protect Tamil and oppose the imposition of Hindi.
Kamal Haasan: Actor-turned-politician Kamal Haasan said that India was an amalgam of languages and cultures and any attempt to impose one over the other will be met with stiff resistance. The struggle would be several times larger than when people in Tamil Nadu agitated against the ban on the bull-taming sport Jallikattu, he warned.
KARNATAKA:
Karnataka Chief Minister Yediyurappa tweeted (17.09.2019)
All official languages in our country are equal. However, as far as Karnataka is concerned, #Kannada is the principal language. We will never compromise its importance and are committed to promote Kannada and our state's culture.
Mr. Siddaramaiah tweeted: “This home wrecker needs to be taught a lesson!! India has a rich history and diverse geography. Each explains its own vibrant culture and practice. We have to embrace the diversity to remain united.”
ANTI HINDI AGITATIONS IN KARNATAKA
2017: Protests In Bengaluru Over The Usage Of Hindi Signs At Metro Stations
KERALA
Kerala Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan termed Shah’s comments as a “war cry” against non-Hindi speaking people.
EAST INDIA : WEST BENGAL
The Amra Bangalee movement by the Ananda Marg group gained some influence during the 1980s and regained its hold in north Bengal in 2008 when the Gorkhaland movement resumed.
In early 2000, poet-novelist Sunil Gangopadhyay led a movement for making Bengali mandatory on signboards of every business establishment in Bengal.
Bangla Pokkho’s movement, however, is different in nature and is primarily directed against “the culture of Hindi heartland”.
